Aircraft Structure - The aircraft must be safe to fly. This means they don't have to risk the lives of crew and passengers and people on the ground.
Safety is one of the main factors in aircraft design and construction. Before entering service, the manufacturer must provide proof that the structure they have built will not break or be damaged during use and that the aircraft's systems will function as intended.
Aircraft Structure
EASA is the organization that defines the regulations that engineering offices must follow and makes recommendations regarding aircraft structure and system design.
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EASA has grouped all the rules that manufacturers and operators of large aircraft must follow into chapters called CS (Certified Specifications). It contains chapters describing certification requirements for different types of aircraft, engines, propellers, aircraft noise, engine emissions and fuel ventilation, aircraft performance in various weather conditions, navigation, training flight simulation, and cabin and flight crew.
Chapter CS-25 contains certification specifications for the production of large aircraft. There are two books. Book no. 1 contains eight subsections and appendices known as Certified Specifications (CS), the number of which may vary when a new edition is issued. The subparts represent the general requirements to be met by the aircraft. Appendices contain clear explanations and clear details to ensure a good understanding of the specifications mentioned in each sub-section. Explanations use sketches, graphs and define concepts. Book no. is known as Acceptable Methods of Compliance (AMC).
The strength required for the aircraft's construction has been proven by engineers through physical tests and detailed analysis and simulations. Physical tests are performed on individual parts, subassemblies and the entire aircraft on the ground and in flight. EASA certifies a structure built to withstand the maximum load of the aircraft during operation without plastic deformation. This means that under this load the structure only flexes elastically, so it will shrink back to its original shape after the load is removed. This load is called the ultimate load. Also, the structure must stand without breaking for the first 3 seconds under a limit load of 1.5x. This is called ultimate load.
The aircraft loads to be designed for are aerodynamic (lift, thrust and resultant moments) and inertial loads due to the weight of the structure and equipment, passengers, cargo and fuel.
General Loads On Aircraft Structure
Aerodynamic loading is obtained by performing airflow tests on scale models in a wind tunnel. The flow test is performed for several aircraft configurations (level flight, right turn, left turn, climb, dive, etc.). However, airflow tests are expensive and cannot be performed for every configuration an aircraft may encounter, so in addition extensive analysis is performed through simulation on powerful computers. The end result is an envelope that describes all the loads that may occur during the flight. The number of simulated loads is usually in the tens of thousands. Once the aircraft is complete, flight testing is done. Devices capable of measuring air pressure and main structure pressure are installed for these flights. In this way, the load used to design the aircraft is checked and, if necessary, offset.
As for the weight, it is multiplied by the acceleration factor, the value of which is different on the three global axes of the aircraft and depends on the task for which the aircraft is designed. For example, the acceleration factor about the normal axis (per wing) of an airplane designed to carry passengers is 3.0 g (where g is the acceleration due to gravity).
The end result of engineering design is the drawings for each part that will be manufactured and furthermore assembled into the aircraft and a value that shows how safe the component is.
Both indicate how large the load capacity is compared to the maximum applied load. For example, if the RF is 2.5, it means that the part can withstand 2.5 times the maximum load that the aircraft will ever experience in its lifetime (in this case, the RF is called the limit). The engineer's goal is to design a structure with a reserve factor as close to one as possible. This is because when the reserve factor is high, it means that the structure is too large and the weight of the material used is more than enough. This results in a heavier aircraft and thus less capacity (in terms of speed, fuel consumption, cargo weight and number of passengers).
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There are aircraft that are not affected by EASA regulations and are still subject to national regulations. Listed below are:
A safety certificate for an aircraft flying in United States space is available from another organization called the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration). The FAA is responsible for establishing aviation regulations in the US known as the FAR (Federal Aviation Regulations).
Interestingly, military aircraft do not conform to any existing civil certification. There are various organizations that set regulations for military aircraft, such as the Military Aviation Authority (MAA) in the UK and the Air Force (AF) in the US.
The structure and systems of the aircraft can be repaired and changed. However, they must still meet certification specifications. Repairs can be made during production or operation. For example, there may be minor scratches on the components due to improper handling by the manufacturer, or the bird may hit the leading edge in flight and make dents. Both injuries are recorded and repaired according to precise procedures. Modifications to the aircraft may be minor or major and must follow the specifications presented in the various chapters.
Aircraft Structural Design And Analysis
Certified aircraft are periodically inspected and maintained during operation, and this activity is also regulated. The aircraft is certified for a limited number of flight hours. This period depends on the type of aircraft and the manufacturer. For a large civil aircraft it can be in the range of 100,000 hours. This limitation is mainly due to the occurrence of fatigue, which can lead to cracks and structural failure. After this period ends, the aircraft can be recertified based on further testing.
Please note that the certification specifications and acceptable compliance methods presented in this article are for informational purposes only. When it is necessary to issue a certificate for an aircraft, please refer to the official documentation of the agency operating in your territory. The stabilizers and control surfaces of the aircraft are made in a similar way to the wings, except that the wings are on a much smaller scale. They usually consist of one or more longitudinal members (spare parts) and ribs attached to the hull, or are a separate link that is adjustable and removable.
The horizontal stabilizers are often seen as the front of the wing, and the elevator is the rear. It is usually an air-leaf joint that has the same level of space for the top and bottom.
The internal structure consists of two main poles running the entire length of the span. On the rear part there is an auxiliary pole, on which four hinges are riveted for the installation of lifts.
New Aircraft Structures Production Technology Has Increased Their Strength
The main structural members of the unit are the rear bars and ribs. The exterior of the unit is clad in aluminum alloy sheet metal, which greatly contributes to the strength/center that is inside the hull. See Figure 2.9
The building structures of the control surfaces are essentially the same as for wings with attachments on the main or tailplane or wings as appropriate.
Doors for pressurized passenger aircraft must be much stronger and much more complex than doors for light aircraft. Typical of the main cabin door of a jet airliner, the door consists of a strong aluminum alloy frame with a heavy outer skin riveted to the fuselage contour. There are hinged doors on the top and bottom edge of the door, which actually make it possible to lower the height of the door so that it can be rotated through the door opening.
The door hinge and control mechanism is complex enough to allow the maneuvering required to move the door outside the aircraft when loading and unloading passengers. For safety in a pressurized aircraft, the door is designed to act as a plug on the door opening, and cabin pressure forces the door to stay firmly in place. To achieve this, the gate must be more than open and in-plane with the pressure pushing out. This prevents the rapid decompression of the cabin that could occur if the door were closed from the outside and the safety mechanism went wireless.
Main Components Of An Aircraft
Special doors and exits for aircraft carrying passengers must comply with certain regulations designed to ensure the safety and well-being of passengers. These regulations are established by the FAA and must be followed in the design and construction of all certified passenger aircraft.
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